Based on extensive consultations with stakeholders in the region, this paper investigates and analyses the implementation of the Eastern Sudan Peace Agreement (ESPA) in an attempt to answer a number of key questions: what role has the Government of Sudan (GoS) played in implementing the agreement? What have been the roles of the movements comprising the Eastern Front (EF)? What impact has the ESPA had on the people of Eastern Sudan? What are the current challenges to and constraints on human security in the region? And what are the prospects for development for the region? The study also applies a gendered approach to clarify how the conflict in Eastern Sudan and the peace agreement may have impacted the lives of men and women differently.
Among the paper’s key findings:
While GoS officials consider the ESPA a success story, political and civil society activists maintain that the ESPA document fell short of reflecting the aspirations of the people of Eastern Sudan, who were never consulted on the content of the agreement. The agreement was not widely popularized, especially at the community level.
The ESPA has not eliminated the root causes of conflict in the region, including political, economic, and social marginalization, as many in the region expected or hoped it would. On the contrary, it only strengthened the GoS’s grip on the region, which is vital for oil exports and a source of mineral resources, especially gold. Communities in the region, especially women, continue to be marginalized. A lack of commitment from the government, as well as weak EF leadership and the fact that the EF was formed in haste, have all contributed to the agreement’s poor implementation.
Ethnic polarization in the region and tension stemming from the origins of the formation of the EF along Beja, Rashaida, and Beni Amer lines has had serious repercussions for peaceful coexistence among the diverse ethnic groups living there.
In contrast to other ‘post-conflict’ areas of Sudan and South Sudan, many of the government-aligned militias and former rebel groups in Eastern Sudan have been demobilized or incorporated into formal and semi-formal security structures, such as the army or border guards. At the same time, the ruling National Congress Party (NCP) has successfully managed and developed its constituencies, coopting former EF leaders in the process.
Many EF ex-combatants initially not integrated into the Sudan Armed Forces (SAF) and other forces have not yet been demobilized or reintegrated, nine years after the ESPA was signed. This has created discontent among many former combatants, some of whom have been doomed to a life of economic and social marginalization. Ex-combatants, especially those who have not been disarmed, can easily be remobilized.
Since the signing of the ESPA the GoS has used the security forces to repress popular protests against economic and political marginalization, but has not taken steps to address pressing injustices such as human trafficking, which is flourishing in the borderlands with Eritrea. The region is a smuggling hub and transit area for both humans and weapons.
The ESPA’s wealth-sharing arrangements have been confined to the Eastern Sudan Reconstruction and Development Fund (ESRDF). Of an initial commitment of USD 600 million, which was to be distributed over five years, the government has disbursed about USD 125 million. The ESRDF has supported the building of roads, schools, clinics, and other infrastructure, but some of the buildings are currently used for storage. The ESRDF also faces charges of corruption and the mismanagement of resources.
The ESPA has not led to significant investment in equitable development. Instead, the region continues on a highly inequitable path to development, which is led by commercial agriculture and mining. The growing economy has left many workers and ordinary people behind and pushed them into protests against declining living standards. Maternal mortality, child mortality, and gender inequality continue to prevail. Some people in the region are calling for secession.
‘Development Deferred’ is the 36th Working Paper to be published by the HSBA. All previous HSBA Working Papers, as well as Issue Briefs and Sudan/South Sudan ‘Facts and Figures’ are available for download in English and Arabic from http://smallarmssurveysudan.org.